International Journal of Strength and Conditioning
International Journal of Strength and Conditioning (IJSC) The International Journal of Strength and Conditioning (IJSC), presented by the International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association (IUSCA), is a leading peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to advancing research in sports science, sports performance, and strength & conditioning. As a Diamond Open Access journal, the IJSC ensures that all published research is freely accessible to the global community, fostering collaboration and innovation. Our mission is to provide high-quality, impactful research that bridges the gap between academia and practice. This mission is made possible through the generous support of organizations, institutions, and individuals who share our commitment to advancing the fields of sports performance and exercise science. Key partnerships with organizations such as JISC and LYRASIS enable us to maintain our open access model and ensure the sustainability of the journal. As a non-profit organization, the IUSCA relies on community and partner support to continue delivering free, world-class research to the strength and conditioning community. If you find value in the IJSC, please consider: Joining the JISC or LYRASIS schemes, or Making a tax-deductible donation to support our mission and the open access movement. ISSN: 2634-2235 International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association (IUSCA)
International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association (IUSCA)
Authors retain copyright of their work, granting IJSC a license to publish and distribute. All articles are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. We clearly state any fees associated with submissions or access for readers. For copyright or licensing queries, stakeholders can reach out to journal@iusca.org.
G-Force Tolerance in Fighter Pilots: A Scoping Review With Evidence Gap Map
Background: Despite growing interest in G-force tolerance, the literature remains fragmented, lacking an integrated synthesis that encompasses physiological, cognitive, training, and equipment-related dimensions. Fighter pilots are frequently exposed to high +Gz environments, which can compromise vision, cardiovascular stability, and consciousness. Understanding G-tolerance is vital for flight safety, operational readiness, and the long-term health of aircrew. Objective: This scoping review aims to map the existing evidence on G-force tolerance in fighter pilots and identify key physiological, anthropometric, cognitive, and operational factors. It also seeks to explore enhancement strategies and assess underrepresented populations, with the goal of guiding future research and improving pilot safety and performance. Methods: The review followed the JBI methodology and adhered to the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Searches were conducted across eight databases and grey literature, including studies published up to March 31, 2025. A total of 118 studies met the inclusion criteria, encompassing a range of study designs and international contexts. Results: Findings revealed eight key themes: assessment and prediction of G-tolerance, physical conditioning, physiological and anthropometric factors, training and prevention strategies, equipment and technology, physiological effects of high-G exposure, risks and impacts, and external influences. Although AGSM proficiency, cardiovascular reflexes, and muscular strength were consistently associated with improved tolerance, substantial gaps were found in gender representation, longitudinal tracking, and integration of real-time physiological monitoring technologies. Conclusion: This review highlights the multifactorial nature of G-force tolerance and underscores the need for personalized, interdisciplinary approaches in pilot training and assessment. It provides a comprehensive foundation for future research aimed at optimizing high-G performance, with recommendations for standardized protocols, inclusive study populations, and expanded use of wearable monitoring tools.
Copyright (c) 2026 João Bruno, Hugo Sarmento, Raynier Montoro-Bombú https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Hitting the Brakes in Soccer: Individualised Thresholds for Assessing High-Intensity Decelerations during Matches
There is currently a lack of understanding surrounding how to quantify high-intensity deceleration actions in soccer. Therefore, this study sought to compare the use of arbitrary (ARB) and individualised (IND) high-intensity deceleration thresholds when examining the most demanding passages of play (MDP) and full matches. Fourteen male soccer players (age = 19.44 ± 1.13 yrs.; mass = 79.14 ± 7.88 kg; height = 184.16 ± 5.00 cm) were monitored during competitive matches using global positioning systems (WIMU Pro, RealTrack System SL, Almeria, Spain). IND thresholds were determined as 75% of a subject's peak deceleration ability from match data. ARB values were set as > 4m/s2 with the differences between these high-intensity deceleration thresholds analysed. ARB thresholds resulted in significantly (p < 0.01) larger distance and count metrics compared to IND during both MDP and full matches. These findings highlight the notable differences between ARB and IND high-intensity deceleration thresholds in matches. Thus, it is recommended a modified IND threshold approach is used when analysing the high-intensity deceleration demands of matches and MDP. Practitioners may be inclined to monitor high-intensity decelerations using IND thresholds, as is suggested when measuring other locomotor tasks during soccer training and matches.
Exercise Science/Exercise Physiology - Strength and Conditioning/Human Performance
Copyright (c) 2026 Liam Moore, Ben Drury, Andrew Hearn https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploring Strength and Conditioning Coaches’ and Stakeholders’ Perceived Value of A Workshop for Learning Psychosocial Coaching Competencies
Commonly used since at least the middle of the 20th century, action research can bridge the gap between science and practice, but within the field of strength and conditioning (S&C), it is a novel research approach. The education and development of S&C practitioners is essential to their understanding of evidence-informed practice and the application of knowledge to improve athletic performance, fitness, and other outcomes, including athlete-centered outcomes, such as well-being. Using a novel, multi-method action research approach, the purpose of this study was to understand S&C stakeholders’ perceived value of learning psychosocial S&C coaching knowledge. In collaboration with the United Kingdom S&C Association (UKSCA), we designed, delivered, and assessed a workshop that included modules on psychological, pedagogical, philosophical, and sociocultural S&C psychosocial coaching competencies. A total of 11 UKSCA participants, including 6 S&C coaches (5 men, 1 woman) and 5 stakeholders (3 men, 2 women), between 38-57 years of age, attended one of the two workshops. Multiple learner-centered activities were completed in the workshop, and then, participants completed data collection methods, including reflection grids and semi-structured interviews. Researchers performed a thematic analysis on the interviews, reflection grids, and field notes that resulted in two overarching themes: participants’ learning and instructional approaches used in the workshop. Participants perceived value from the content and instructional approach used in the workshop, while expressing challenges and recommendations for improvement. This original action research study advances the knowledge about S&C through a novel methodological approach and the education of S&C stakeholders’ psychosocial competencies.
Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Brian T. Gearity, Dr. Bettina Callary, Mrs. Kimberley Eagles, Dr. Chris Szedlak https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Framework Guide for the Selection of External Load Metrics in Ice Hockey
External workload monitoring has become commonplace in many sports, with staff looking to leverage the information gained to manipulate practice volume and intensity, hoping to maximize player readiness, minimize fatigue, and reduce the risk of injuries. However, with the increase in availability of technology to facilitate this, practitioners are faced with an overwhelming selection of metrics to choose from. Collinearity, contradiction and the accurate quantification of relative metrics risk creating confusion, and therefore it may benefit practitioners to have some guidance to help in the process of metric selection. This framework aims to provide clarity in the underpinning theory, history and development of external workload monitoring practice, a series of questions for reflective practitioners to consider, and evidence-based practical suggestions for its use.
Copyright (c) 2026 Steven Nightingale, Jonathan Hughes, Mark De Ste Croix, Craig Pfeifer https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effects of Load on Lower Extremity Joint Kinetics and Kinematics during Hexagonal Barbell Jump Squats
Strength and conditioning coaches often recommend athletes perform loaded jumps with an external load that maximizes peak power output to improve performance. However, there is debate regarding the training load that maximizes acute total body power, and power at individual lower extremity joints. The purpose of this study was to investigate lower extremity kinetic and kinematic variables across a spectrum of loads during jump squats using a hexagonal barbell. Participants performed jumps with a range of loads from 10% to 60% of hexagonal barbell deadlift estimated 1-repetition maximum (e1RM), as well as an unloaded countermovement jump. Using cameras and force plates, lower extremity angles, velocities, moments, powers, as well as total body power, were assessed for each jump. As load increased, there was a decrease in power at the total body level and the hip, but ankle power increased. All joint moment magnitudes increased with load, and flexion angle and velocity at the hip and knee decreased with load. Results suggest that increasing load impacts kinetic and kinematic variables and alters the jumping task, and that the majority of these changes occur when loading exceeds approximately 20-30% 1RM. Further, knee kinetics measures were most strongly related to total body power.
Copyright (c) 2026 Jacob F. Remmert, Abigail K. Salvadore, Adam E. Jagodinsky, Marcel Lopes dos Santos, Michael R. Torry https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Stakeholders Perceptions of Undergraduate and Postgraduate Strength and Conditioning Education in the United Kingdom: A Survey Study
The number of strength and conditioning (S&C) degrees in the United Kingdom has grown alongside the discipline’s popularity. The design and development of these degrees are influenced by various stakeholders, including S&C association representatives, potential employers, degree representatives, students, and graduates. Prior to this study, the collective perceptions of these stakeholders regarding UK S&C degrees had not been researched. This study filled this gap by reporting on the results of 73 participants who completed a one-time anonymous survey, consisting of six sections: (a) background information, (b) degree endorsement, recognition, and accreditation, (c) course structure, (d) placements, (e) module topics, and (f) further information. Frequency analysis was employed for fixed-response questions and thematic analysis for open-ended questions. Participants valued S&C associations and their role in providing degree endorsements, recognitions, and accreditations as they demonstrate quality assurance and alignment with industry standards. However, they felt that professional qualifications from these associations should be more integrated into degree programmes. Regarding degree content and structure, participants agreed that undergraduate degrees should focus on foundational knowledge (e.g., physiology), while postgraduate degrees should cover specialised S&C content and applied practice (e.g., placements). However, some differences in opinion were observed concerning module topics, with participants lacking interest in research-based modules, despite being common, especially at postgraduate level. Placements were considered very important for gaining authentic practical experience, with most participants recommending they be compulsory. Although, flexibility was recommended for students with existing industry experience. These findings provide valuable and needed insights into current perceptions of UK S&C degrees, which may inform stakeholders decisions and practices, lead to closer alignment between stakeholder groups, and create beneficial changes for UK S&C degrees.
Copyright (c) 2026 Anthony Weldon, Kevin Till, Jonathan Hughes, Ibrahim Akubat, James Keenan, Andrea Cameron, Anthony Turner https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effects of Optimum Power Load vs Mixed Model Training Methods on Lower Limb Strength and Dynamic Performance in Female Athletes
Training with optimum power load (OPL) was shown to result in improved lower limb strength. However, recent study has recommended using the mixed model training (MMT) method which involves frequent varying of training loads. As the training adaptations to OPL and MMT training methods have not been directly compared, hence, the purpose of this study was to compare the effects of OPL and MMT on lower limb neuromuscular adaptations. Seventeen female athletes (age: 22±2.9 years, height: 162.7±5.2 cm, bodyweight: 60.5±9.6 kg) were randomly assigned to either MMT or OPL training (OPLT) group. Both groups performed similar training program twice a week for six weeks. However, MMT performed the loaded CMJ exercise at -15-20% and +20-25% of OPL, while OPLT performed it at OPL. Pre- and post-test included CMJ, 5-0-5 change of direction test (505 COD), 20-m sprint and isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP). Both groups showed significant improvement in CMJ height (MMT: P=0.025, g=0.48, OPLT: P=0.003, g=0.72), 505 COD (MMT: P<0.001, g=1.12, OPLT: P=0.006, g=0.36), 20-m sprint (MMT: P<0.001, g=0.65, OPLT: P=0.002, g=0.28), IMTP peak force (MMT: P<0.001, g=0.66, OPLT: P<0.001, g=0.46) and IMTP force at 100 ms (MMT: P=0.019, g=0.66, OPLT: P=0.001, g=0.60). Only MMT significantly improved CMJ mean propulsion force (P=0.004, g=0.34), a variable that contributes to greater jump height. While OPLT resulted in greater effect for CMJ height, MMT resulted in greater effect for 505 COD, 20-m sprint and IMTP performance. These findings suggest that frequent varying of resistance may induce greater neuromuscular adaptations.
Copyright (c) 2026 Terence Kwee Hao Chua, Pui Wah Kong, Danny Lum https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Coaching Insights into Pickup Acceleration
In team sports, sprint acceleration from a moving start, or, in coaching terminology, “pickup acceleration”—is a critical, yet different, skill that occurs more frequently than acceleration from a static start. Despite its importance, pickup acceleration remains underexplored compared to traditional sprint mechanics, which primarily focus on stationary starts. Given the paucity of research, a practice-based evidence approach was employed in this study, gathering insights from expert coaches (N = 13, coaching collegiate, professional, Olympic, or elite high school athletes) to identify the essential physical and technical attributes for enhancing pickup acceleration performance. The surveyed coaches identified lower body force and power production (54%), lower body elasticity and stiffness (38%), hip and ankle range of motion (15%), coordination (38%), and core rotational strength and stability (31%) as essential physical qualities for pickup acceleration proficiency. From a technical perspective, the change in center of mass height (31%) and center of mass angle (46%), anterior touchdown distance, and shin angle (23%), hip separation angle (23%), and optimization of step kinematics (step length and step frequency; 31%) were thought crucial to maximizing acceleration and efficiency. Additionally, distinctions were noted between acceleration from walking versus jogging starts, with each entry type requiring specific adjustments in force application and body alignment. Understanding the determinants and how to assess pickup acceleration can help delineate between track speed and sports speed, enabling coaches to tailor pickup acceleration training for improved performance in terms of sport specificity.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mark Pryer, Prof. John Cronin, Dr. Jono Neville, Chris Korfist, Dr. Aaron Uthoff https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Reliability and Validity of Isometric Midthigh Pull Measures Obtained from a Portable Isometric Dynamometer
The purpose of this investigation was to establish the reliability and concurrent validity of measures of peak and early force production obtained from a portable isometric dynamometer (PID). Twenty resistance trained males completed one familiarization and two isometric mid-thigh pull testing sessions separated by 48-72 hrs. During testing sessions data was simultaneously collected from the PID and force plates (FP) both sampling at a frequency of 1000 Hz. Measurements of peak force (PF) and force at 100 ms (Force100) and 200 ms (Force200) obtained from both the PID and the FP demonstrated acceptable reliability (ICC’s = 0.793-0.966; CV% = 2.7-9.2%). However, PF was significantly and meaningfully greater (P < 0.001; d = 1.00) 1.27% greater when obtained from the FP compared to the PID. In contrast, Force100 obtained from FP was significantly lower to that obtained from PID by 229% (P < 0.001; d =3.96). Similarly, Force200 obtained from FP was significantly lower to that obtained from PID by 38.87% (P < 0.001; d = 1.43). Whilst the measures of force production obtained from the PID was shown to have acceptable reliability they displayed questionable validity, particularly with respect to measures of early force production.
Sport Science; Strength and Conditioning
Copyright (c) 2025 Danny Lum, Lachlan P. James, Luke Stutter, Scott Talpey https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Power! A Field Based Testing Resource for Strength & Conditioning Personnel
Power may be the most vital physical trait towards successful sport performance. Whether competing in team sports such as basketball and rugby; individual sports including track and field events, tennis, and golf; endurance based events encompassing cross country skiing, marathon running, and long distance swimming; or even tactical occupations, power development and maintenance is crucial to an athletes’ success. The specific power component most vital to success should be identified, monitored, and tested to ensure continued development and/or maintenance throughout a competition calendar. By conducting a needs analysis, the specific contributions of power to a given sport can be determined. Equally important as knowing how to develop power, is also knowing what economic field based tests are available to accurately assess athletic development. The purpose of this article is to provide strength and conditioning coaches (SCC) across numerous levels/populations and having various levels of funding, with a brief overview, categorization and coaching resource for the vast array of field testing methods available to assess and monitor whole, upper, and lower body power.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ian Bonder, Dr. Mike Waller, Marc Tangeman, Dr. Andrew Shim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Flywheel Resistance Training for Anterior Cruciate Ligament Rehabilitation
The tearing or rupturing of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) has become an increasingly common injury in athletes, particularly in sports that require sharp, pivoting movements and sports that have high deceleration and landing demands. Optimizing each stage of rehabilitation post ACL reconstruction (ACLR) is crucial for successful recovery and the return-to-play of an athlete. Researchers have highlighted the importance of deceleration training and the role of increased eccentric force production and the ability to attenuate rapid braking forces prior to an athletes return-to-sport. There are many training methods that can provide this eccentric overload; however, the focus of this review is on the utility of flywheel resistance training (FRT) during ACL rehabilitation. An overview of the literature that has determined the effects of FRT on ACL rehabilitation post ACLR is discussed, including the current loading parameters, and limitations of the research. A new perspectives of late-stage ACL rehabilitation with FRT is then proposed, with practical examples provided.
Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Performance in Sport
Copyright (c) 2026 Margaret Michalak, Dr. Chloe Mihi Ryan, Dr. Alex Ehlert, Dr. John Cronin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Retrospective Self-Reported Audit of Injuries Amongst Grappling Athletes Competing in the United Kingdom
Purpose: This study aimed to estimate the incidence, prevalence, type, and mechanism of injuries among grappling athletes in the United Kingdom (UK) across the following disciplines: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ), Judo, Catch Wrestling, Sambo, and Mixed Martial Arts (MMA). Methods: A retrospective, self-reported survey, delivered via JISC online survey software, was used to record the following information for all injuries sustained over the previous 12-month period: mechanism of injury, environment, severity, recurrence and body region. Additionally, injury diagnosis was reported where possible. Injury incidence for training exposure was calculated based on hours trained per week, while competition exposure was based on the number of bouts participated in during the year. One variable chi-square tests (X2) were used to calculate if observed values were significantly different from expected values. Results: A total of 341 grappling athletes, 243 males and 97 females, with one participant preferring not to state gender (32 ± 9.3 years), completed the study over a 3-month period. The competition incident rates (IR) (24.16/1000 AE) were significantly higher than training (2.97/1000 AE). The knee was the most frequently injured site (24.5%). Ligament sprains were the most commonly diagnosed injury (24.3%). Most injuries occurred during practice sparring (65.8%), with the leading mechanisms being submission attempts and takedowns. Major injuries (>28 days recovery) accounted for 49.5% of all cases. BJJ exhibited the highest injury rate (3.49/1000 AE); patterns varied by discipline and gender. Conclusion: Grappling sports pose a substantial risk of injury, particularly to the knee. Structured training, medical support, and tailored injury risk reduction programs should now be explored to enhance athlete safety.
Copyright (c) 2026 Jonathan Bell, Eleanor Travis, Ashley Jones https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Development of an Independent Regulatory Council for the International Qualification Framework: International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association Position Statement
The establishment of the International Qualification Framework (IQF) represented a seminal advancement towards standardising education and certification levels in the profession of strength and conditioning (S&C). By providing a standardised and internationally unified structure, the IQF directly addresses the long-standing disparities and inconsistencies noted in education and qualification recognition globally. However, the credibility and effectiveness of such a global qualification framework depends upon robust policies and detailed independent regulatory oversight. The IQF Independent Regulatory Council (IQF-IRC) has therefore been established as an autonomous body, specifically designed to oversee the IQF including its education, accreditation, and certification processes. This position statement outlines the governance structure, core responsibilities, professional relevance, and strategic objectives of the IQF-IRC. It will also discuss the benefits of voluntary alignment by global S&C organisations, ultimately fostering a cohesive and universally accepted education and accreditation system that can be presented to the wider industry and public.
Copyright (c) 2025 Andrew Langford, Aden Flannagan, Stephen P. Bird, Paulo Marchetti, Timothy J. Piper, David Morley https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Position-Specific Benchmarks for Jump and Reach Metrics in the National Basketball Association Draft Combine
This study analysed data from the NBA draft combine and aimed to establish position-specific normative data for jump and reach performance to support coaches in better assessing the jumping ability of basketball players. Data on body height with shoes, standing reach (STReach), vertical jump reach (VJReach), and running jump reach (RJReach) were obtained from publicly available sources for 1,048 players who participated in the NBA draft combine between the 2004-05 and 2022-23 seasons. Vertical jump height (VJHeight), running jump height (RJHeight), and run-up effect (RE) were calculated. These variables were then compared across five playing positions; point guard, shooting guard, small forward, power forward, and center and position-specific percentile scores were generated to create normative data. Results showed that RJReach significantly increased from guards to centers (p < .05), primarily reflecting positional differences in anthropometry. Notably, guards demonstrated significantly higher VJHeight, RJHeight, and RE (p < .05) compared to power forwards and centers, indicating that shorter players may compensate for their height through enhanced vertical jump and RE. Furthermore, height and STReach progressively increased from guards to centers, highlighting the contribution of anthropometric, non-trainable characteristics. VJReach and RJReach increased across positions, and this increase was significant between all positions but power forwards and centers. RE was higher in guards and forwards than in centers. These results imply that RE may capture unique, trainable aspects of jump performance. This study presents position-specific benchmarks for jumping ability, offering strength and conditioning coaches practical reference values to assess players’ strengths and weaknesses and to design tailored training programs.
Copyright (c) 2026 Hiroki Ogata, Henderson Frederick, Daichi Yamashita https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Concurrent Validity and Reliability of the My Jump Lab Smartphone Application for Break Point Angle Assessment in the Nordic Hamstring Exercise
The Nordic Hamstring Exercise is widely used to prevent muscle strain injuries. Although isokinetic dynamometry is considered a gold standard for assessment, it is often impractical in many settings, due to several reasons. A cost-effective alternative for physical evaluations of the same muscle could be Smartphone-based, which have greatly increased in recent years due to technological advancements. This study aims to assess the concurrent validity and inter-rater reliability of the My Jump Lab smartphone application in measuring the break point angle (BPA) during the Nordic Hamstring Exercise. Twenty-four healthy participants were recruited for this study and performed five repetitions of the nordic hamstring exercise, while being recorded via smartphone for BPA estimation. The same exercise was compared with kinematic analysis, as reference method. Concurrent validity was assessed by Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient and Bland-Altman Plots, while inter-rater reliability was analysed by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), coefficient of variation (CV) and standard error of measurement (SEM). Results revealed a very high and significant level of correlation (r > 0.9, p< 0.001) for break point angle measurements, with small proportional bias. The app showed excellent inter-rater reliability (ICC >0.9), with very small variations (CV ≈ 1%) and SEM lower that 1.3 degrees. These outcomes suggest that My Jump Lab is a valid and reliable tool for BPA assessment, that can be used confidently to assess hamstring muscle strain in a simple, portable and practical manner.
Copyright (c) 2025 Amandio Dias, André Gomes, Diogo Nogueira, Leonel Correia, Rodrigo Trindade https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Measuring Impulse-DSI and its Derivatives Via the Isometric Belt Squat: Assessing Relationships with Sprint Ability Among Division 1 Team Sport Athletes
The dynamic strength index (DSI) is a common athlete profiling tool that has traditionally been derived as the ratio between the peak force in the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and the countermovement jump (CMJ) to identify ballistic strength deficits. Recently, an impulse-based DSI (iDSI) has been proposed for the relevance of impulse metrics in explosive sports. Furthermore, the isometric belt squat (IBSq) may be a superior alternative to the IMTP for measuring lower-body force potential owing to its removal of the torso and upper limb involvement. This study assessed the reliability of two novel IBSq and CMJ 200ms impulse metrics. Furthermore, we assessed the individual relationships and predictive utility of the DSI derivatives and 40m sprint performance. 43 Division 1 team sport athletes (30 males and 13 females) were recruited. Reliability was assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and the coefficient of variation (COV). The relationships between DSI and iDSI derivatives, 0-10m, 10-30m, and 30-40m split times were assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and stepwise regression. The IBSq and CMJ impulses demonstrated acceptable reliability (ICC > .93, COV < 9.6%). IBSq and CMJ impulses explained up to 56% of the variance in 0-10m time (p <.002) and up to 49% of the variance in 30-40m time (p <.0001). The IBSq-derived iDSI score may be a reliable and accurate test for predicting sprint performance among Division 1 team sport athletes. Practitioners may monitor iDSI derivatives to enhance training decisions relevant to sprint speed.
Copyright (c) 2026 Matthew Ward https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Physical Profile of Strongman and Strongwoman Athletes
While strongmen and strongwomen are among the strongest athletes in all sports, limited literature is available pertaining to the physical and physiological characteristics of this population, including their vertical jump ability. Thus, the purpose of this study was to profile a cohort of strongman and strongwoman competitors at an international strongman/strongwoman event and measure jump performance differences between competitors (currently active strongmen/strongwomen) and resistance-trained individuals (individuals not strongmen or strongwomen at the event). Twenty-three subjects who attended an international strongman and strongwoman event (age:27.7±5.9 years; weight: 116.3±30.4 kg) volunteered to participate in the present study. Weight, hand length, hand grip strength, self-reported one repetition maximum for common powerlifting exercises, and specific countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) metrics were analyzed for between-sex differences within the sport. The present study's findings reveal that hand length, hand grip strength, and self-reported one repetition maximum for common powerlifting exercises were significantly higher for strongman competitors. For CMJ and SJ, both relative and absolute mean and peak velocity, force, and power in eccentric and concentric phases were significantly higher for strongman competitors. Contraction times were shorter for strongmen in both CMJ and SJ than strongwomen but were non-significant. Interestingly, the eccentric utilization ratio and the stretch-shortening cycle percentage did not significantly differ between strongman and strongwoman competitors, however, the entire cohort's eccentric EUR was considerably less than 1.2, indicating higher overall strength than ballistic power. The present study was able to profile the physical and jump performance characteristics of strongman and strongwoman competitors.
Copyright (c) 2026 Yang Yang, Quincy Johnson, Nicolas Philipp, Drake Eserhaut, Joe Kenn, Dimitrije Cabarkapa, Andrew Fry https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Profiling the Physical Conditioning Attributes of Young Male Gaelic Football Players: From Adolescence to Adulthood
This study assessed the anthropometry and physical conditioning attributes of young male inter-county (national level) Gaelic football players, comparing possible differences according to age categories (under-14 [U14] to under-21 [U21]) and position. In total, 3547 assessments were undertaken in 2588 players across a 10-year period (2013 to 2023). Assessments included anthropometry (stature, body mass, sum of 3 skinfolds), flexibility (sit and reach test), muscular power (countermovement jump and standing long jump), running speed (5-m and 20-m), muscular endurance (maximum push ups) and aerobic capacity (yo-yo intermittent recovery test level 1 [YYIRT1]). Increases were demonstrated when comparing age categories from U14 to U21 for anthropometry (e.g., height [cm] +5.7%), muscular power (e.g., Standing long jump [cm] +16.1%). running speed (e.g., 5 m speed [s] -4.8% from U14 to U20), running momentum (e.g., 20 m momentum [kg.ms-1] +41.5% from U14 to U20), muscular endurance (push-ups [n] +107.7%), flexibility (sit and reach [cm] +36.0%) and aerobic capacity (YYIRT1 [m] +42.3%). When comparing positions, goalkeepers and midfielders were taller and heavier than backs and forwards, respectively. Additionally, midfielders displayed superior aerobic conditioning when compared with other positions, while goalkeepers displayed significantly lower aerobic conditioning. These findings offer comparative data of young Gaelic football players from varying age categories (U14 to U21) which are further classified according to positions. Practitioners may utilize this data to inform player identification processes, characterize position-specific benchmarks and monitor physiological adaptations in young players.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lorcan Daly, Cathal Cregg, Daniel Forde, Ciarán Catháin, David Kelly https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Strength, Power and Anaerobic Capacities of Male Judo Athletes across Age and Competitive Levels
Purpose: This cross-sectional study evaluated the physiological profiles of judo athletes across age and competitive levels, aiming to identify key physiological determinants of judo success. Methods: Thirty-eight judokas from three age/competitive levels (cadet + junior, non-Olympic senior, and Olympic senior), spanning various weight classes and ages, were assessed for strength, power, and anaerobic qualities. Performance tests included countermovement jump, drop jump, maximal grip strength, and upper body Wingate anaerobic test (WIN) and results were normalized to body mass. Strength values were obtained from the athletes’ self-reported training programs and normalized to competition weight class. Comparisons of the physical measures were made across age/competitive levels and a qualitative evaluation based on success in national vs. international competitions was made within the groups. Results: Significant differences in absolute values were observed between age/competitive level groups; however, most differences disappeared after normalization. The only persistent differences were in relative WIN peak power and relative WIN mean power, which were greater for the senior athletes compared with the cadet + junior group. No significant differences were found between quality levels within the groups. Conclusion: In the within-group analysis, it was not possible to differentiate high vs. low quality level male judo athletes in our cohort. When comparing the three groups, only relative WIN peak and relative mean power were significantly different between groups while other measures lost significance when normalized. This strengthens the notion that anaerobic power and capacity are relevant to judo success.
Copyright (c) 2025 Idan Harat, Dr. Rotem Kislev-Cohen, Dr. David H. Fukuda https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Role of the Strength and Conditioning Coach in Return-from-Injury Care: A Survey Study
The purpose of this study was to describe the perceptions of strength and conditioning coaches (SCCs) regarding professional roles and decision-making related to return-from-injury care in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) to identify areas of opportunity related to effective completion of the rehabilitation continuum. Sixty-seven SCCs completed a web-based survey. Means, standard deviations, and frequency of responses were used to report results. SCCs perceive their roles to be most significant in advanced training, training systems not specific to the injury, and late-stage strength/function. Only 72% of Head SCCs and 66% of Assistant SCCs perceive their role to include shared development of training sessions for return to performance, which is an aspect of their scope of practice; fewer are included in return to sport programming. Less than one third make any recommendations for clearance to progress to the next stage in rehabilitation. SCCs expressed a desire for a larger role in decision-making regarding readiness for full return to competition, yet only 68% of Head SCCs and 59% of Assistant SCCs report they conduct any testing for the final transition to return to performance. Areas of opportunity for the SCC include conducting assessments related to return to sport and full return to performance to contribute to progression/clearance recommendations and contributing to the end stage program design for effective completion of the rehabilitation continuum. These integral components of the rehabilitation continuum could allow the SCCs to have a more defined role and greater voice in return-from-injury care.
Copyright (c) 2026 Erin Choice, Rebecca Downey, Maren Clark, Gabrielle Haugh, Trevor Short https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Unlocking Basketball Athletic Performance: Countermovement Jump Rebound (CMJ-RE) Normative Reference Values Derived from Force Plate Data Across Seven NCAA Division-I Power Five Men’s College Basketball Teams
Purpose: This study examined the emerging countermovement rebound jump (CMJ-RE) test as an alternative to the drop jump (DJ) to grade reactive strength abilities in elite basketball players. Normative percentile data, rebound jump filter criteria, novel effort metrics, and reliability statistics were analyzed in order to better define the standards for a high-quality CMJ-RE test and to democratize the measurement of reactive jump testing. Methods: 96 NCAA Division-I men’s college basketball players from seven teams performed the CMJ-RE (bounce-method) on bilateral force plates with hands on hips during the 2023-2024 pre-season. Only 87 players met the quality filter criteria for further analysis (three centers, 31 forwards, 53 guards); the center position was not compared in depth due to the limited sample size. Results: Between forwards and guards, positional differences were found for 37% of the 38 reported jump metrics, with guards showing higher rebound jump heights (JH), all other metrics (p < 0.05) favored forwards. Mean ground contact times (GCT) for both positions were >250 ms. On average for both positions, the first jump in the CMJ-RE was completed at 94% JH of a previously collected standalone CMJ JH; and the second jump was completed at 98% JH of the first CMJ-RE JH. Furthermore, percentile ranges (3rd to 97th) accompanied by qualitative descriptors and a traffic light classification system were reported. Conclusion: Overall, the CMJ-RE (bounce-method) is a reliable alternative to the DJ for assessing reactive strength qualities in elite basketball players and may be more sport-specific, due to players frequently performing subsequent jumps rather than one single effort jump. The normative data prepared in this study should serve as a reference point throughout the evaluation of reactive strength for basketball performance coaches and in the return to play process for sports medicine professionals. Those administering the CMJ-RE should use the filter criteria measures outlined in this paper to ensure quality and effort are being met.
Copyright (c) 2025 Drake Berberet, Adam Petway, Karah Bell, Zach Gillen, Peter Mundy, Henry Barrera, Jason Kabo, Dom Walker, Garrett Medenwald, Braden Welsh, John McMahon https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Retrospective Analysis of Powerlifting Performances in the U.S. (1995 - 2005)
In this retrospective study, powerlifting performances in the United States from 1995 – 2005 were taken from annual top 100 rankings published in Powerlifting USA magazine. The rankings included results for the squat, bench press, deadlift, and total for each standard weight class during a calendar year. In the current study, average performances for each weight class were compiled for the #1, #10, #50, and #100 ranks. The weights lifted for each category increased as a function of the competitor’s weight class in a curvilinear pattern, with the heaviest classes showing diminishing improvement in weight lifted with increased body weight. When weights lifted were standardized to the lifter’s weight class, a unimodal curve was observed, with maximal values being in the middle weight classes. The lower mass-specific performance in heavier lifters is the basis for Wilks coefficient and other adjustments for comparing performances among different weight classes. This coefficient is a mathematical formula based on a polynomial transformation of a lifter’s weight class. It was derived to compensate for the curvilinear nature of lifting performance as a function of body weight. Based on the patterns documented, it is proposed that part of this flattening of performance can be attributed to systematic differences in body composition across weight classes. During this 11-year period, significant improvements were observed for some lifts, ranks, and weight classes. However, many did not change, while others showed significant declines. These data demonstrate that U.S. powerlifters at the turn of the century were highly competitive, particularly within the middle through the heaviest weight classes. Overall, the lifting performances in the U.S. during this decade provide an historical reference point, from a time before powerlifting records became more widely available via the internet.
Copyright (c) 2026 Scott Medler https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Comparison of Peak Force and Myoelectric Activity of the Anterior and Middle Deltoid at Three Shoulder Angles During Frontal, Diagonal, and Lateral Raise Exercises in Trained Men
The objective of the present study was to compare the peak force and myoelectric activity of the anterior (AD) and middle deltoid (MD) at three different shoulder joint angles during the frontal (FR), diagonal (DR), and lateral raise (LR) exercises in recreationally-trained men. Fifteen resistance-trained men (age: 27±5 years, height: 173±9 cm, total body mass: 81±10 kg) were assigned to this study. Three resistance exercises (FR, DR, and LR) were tested isometrically at three different shoulder joint angles (0°, 45°, and 90°). Peak force (PF) and myoelectric activity (iEMG) were measured for all exercises and shoulder joint angles. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (3x3) was used to test differences between exercises (FR, DR, and LR) and shoulder joint angles (0°, 45°, and 90°) for PF. A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA (2x3x3) was used to test differences between muscle groups (AD and MD), exercises (LR, DR, and FR), and shoulder joint angles (0°, 45°, and 90°) for iEMG. All RT exercises presented similar levels of force production and myoelectric activity (AD and MD) regardless of the specific plane of motion (p>0.05). However, the shoulder joint position affected the force production and AD activity without changes for MD.
Copyright (c) 2025 Willy A. Gomes, Josinaldo J. da Silva, Roberto A. Magalhaes, Luis F.M. Teixeira, Rafael C. Paulino, Paulo H. Marchetti https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Effect of Neoprene Elbow Sleeves on Bench Press and Shoulder Press Performance
Aim: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of neoprene elbow sleeves on performance in bench press and shoulder press. Methods: Nineteen resistance trained males and one female (24 ± 4 years; 181 ± 8 cm; 83 ± 11kg) visited the laboratory on four occasions. Participants were randomly assigned in a crossover and counterbalanced design to one of two conditions: with SBD neoprene elbow sleeves and without sleeves. During each visit, participants completed one repetition maximum (1RM) followed by ‘as many repetitions as possible’ (AMRAP) to concentric failure at 85% of 1RM. Test day one and three were bench press; test day two and four were shoulder press. Results: 1RM bench press was higher with sleeves than without sleeves (104.8 ± 17.7 kg vs. 103.2 ± 18.7 kg, p = 0.015). Bench press AMRAP was higher with sleeves than without sleeves (5.2 ± 1.4 vs. 4.1 ± 2.0, p = 0.006). 1RM shoulder press was higher with sleeves than without sleeves (66.0 ± 13.9 vs. 64.0 ± 13.7, p = 0.008). Shoulder press AMRAP was higher with sleeves than without sleeves (5.8 ± 1.3 vs. 4.6 ± 1.2, p = 0.001). No significant differences were observed in mean or peak barbell velocity between conditions (p >0.05). Conclusion: Neoprene elbow sleeves improved 1RM and AMRAP in bench press and shoulder press, but not barbell velocity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Håkon Andre Mehus, Martin Stamnes, Magnus Olderkjær Larsen, Olav Melhus Gomo, Runar Jakobsen Unhjem https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Mixing Up Muscle Lengths: The Effects of Training at Different Muscle Lengths in the Elbow Flexors
PURPOSE: This study investigated the effects of resistance training at only longer muscle lengths (LONG) compared to training with a combination of long and short muscle lengths (MIXED). METHODS: 7 recreationally trained males (n=5) and females (n=2) completed an eight-week replicated crossover within-participant design, with participants’ upper limbs randomized to LONG or MIXED conditions. LONG training involved only seated lengthened cable curls, while MIXED training involved half seated lengthened cable curls and half standing shortened cable curls. Elbow flexor cross-sectional area (CSA), regional muscle thickness (MT), dynamic strength, isometric strength, and arm circumference were assessed at pre- and post- testing. Session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) and perceived soreness were assessed before and after every session. RESULTS: Changes in total CSA for LONG (6.01 cm2 [95% HDI: - 1.64, 14.66], 80.12% probability > ROPE) and MIXED (3.18 cm2 [95% HDI: -5.66, 12.69], 55.51% probability > ROPE) were considered meaningful, but the contrast between conditions was not meaningful. Changes in dynamic strength for the shortened cable curl and lengthened cable curl in both conditions were considered meaningful, but the contrast between conditions was not meaningful. Contrast estimates in arm circumference were meaningfully greater for LONG at the proximal, middle, and distal regions of the upper arm but had questionable relevance. Changes in regional MT, regional isometric force, total isometric strength, sRPE, and perceived soreness were not considered meaningful for either condition. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, it seems that neither training condition provides clearly superior outcomes for hypertrophy, strength, or perceptual fatigue.
Copyright (c) 2026 Seth R. Hinson, Joshua C. Pelland, Jacob F. Remert, Zac P. Robinson, Shawn Dinh, Ethan Elkins, Caitlyn M. Meehan, David Diaz, Brian Benitez, Christian T. Macarilla, Michael W. Morgan, Michael C. Zourdos https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Key Performance Indicators for the Golf Swing in Elite Collegiate Golf Athletes: An Exploratory Study
Golf swing performance has been found to be influenced by health status, physical fitness, and technical abilities. However, as the sport becomes more competitive, athletes and coaches regularly seek novel approaches to optimizing athletic performance. This study sought to identify key performance indicators that are significantly related to golf club head speed within an elite collegiate golf population. Height, weight, vertical and lateral jump, upper-body rotational velocity, club head speed, and swing kinematics for 21 NCAA Division I female (n = 11) and male (n = 10) golf athletes were collected for analysis. Significant differences between female and male athletes were observed for measures of anthropometry, jumping ability, upper-extremity rotational velocity as well as clubhead speed (p < 0.05). Of particular interest were findings that suggest load-velocity profiling as a novel (for the sport of golf) but useful tool to support individualized golf swing profiling and technical improvement approaches. However, no significant differences between groups were observed for any rotational kinematic measure (p > 0.05). Interestingly, a novel assessment of swing kinematics revealed that peak rotational velocities at specific loads relative to an athlete’s body mass were discovered to have a significantly moderate positive correlation with fast club head speed (p < 0.05). Altogether, these findings can be utilized by sports performance professionals to improve the assessment, development, and performance capabilities of golfers interested in enhancing their clubhead speed.
Copyright (c) 2025 Dr. Quincy R. Johnson, Yang Yang, Kira Ziola, Dawei Sun, Jonathan Moore, Paige Sutton, Dr. Andrew C. Fry, Dr. Douglas B. Smith https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Prediction of Maximal Vertical Jumps during the Entire Season in NCAA Division 1 Women Basketball Players
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to develop a prediction model of weekly maximum jump height (JHmax) performance as a measure of readiness from external workload measures during practice and games, measures of volume-load during resistance training, and self-reported sleep quality, stress, and recovery in NCAA Division 1, women basketball players during the entire season. Methods: Twelve female participants (age = 21.3 ± 1.6 yrs; ht = 171.6 ± 7.1 cm; wt = 67.9 ± 5.3 kg) who were cleared for full participation were recruited to participate in the study. Workload (WL) and work intensity (WI) were measured during every practice and game during the entire official season. The following independent variables were entered into a multivariate regression model to predict JHmax performance across each week in the season using a 7-day period prior to assessment: WL, WI, and Work Density (WD) (WL x WI), self-reported sleep quality (SL), stress (STR), and recovery (REC), total resistance training volume-load (RTV), prior week’s JHmax (Sign), week of the season (Week), and pre-season vs in-season (Season). JHmax was the dependent measure assessed prior to the season and every Monday. Results: The resultant model was statistically significant with an r2 of 71 %. All variables were significant predictors of JHmax except SL and REC. Conclusions: A trend of lower WL and RTV and greater WI and STR had a positive effect on the following JHmax. Analyzing the 7-day period prior to JHmax assessment, high WD scores by manipulation of WL and WI six days prior had a positive influence on JHmax while lower scores were warranted the day before the test. High WL with low WI were indicated three days prior. Finally, controlling for the other variables, JHmax tended to decrease across the in-season indicating a need to reduce external loads in the following week when JHmax decreased to enhance recovery.
College Basketball, Load Management, Resistance Training, Readiness
strength and conditioning, sport science, regression analysis
Copyright (c) 2026 Kevin McCurdy, Rasim Muzaffer Musal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Response to the Comment on our Article: "Explosive is not a Term Defined in the International System of Units and Should not be Used to Describe Neuromuscular Performance"
We thank Schumann et al. (Schumann, Feuerbacher et al. 2024) for their engagement and thoughtful comments on our article (Ide, Silvatti et al. 2023), and the overarching use of terminology in sports science. Academic debate is critical for advancing our field, and we welcome the opportunity to clarify and expand on our arguments. While their comment offers a perspective on practical terminology use, we maintain that the application of “explosive” in scientific literature may be both unnecessary and potentially misleading.
Copyright (c) 2025 Bernardo Ide, Amanda P. Silvatti, Craig A. Staunton , Moacir Marocolo , Dustin J. Oranchuk , Gustavo R. Mota https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effect of World Lacrosse Sixes Match play on Neuromuscular Performance in International Men’s Lacrosse Players
Sixes lacrosse is a new sport to be included in the 2028 Olympics, however there is limited understanding on the demands of Sixes lacrosse competition. Purpose: To observe the effect of Sixes lacrosse on acute fatigue. Methods: Eleven international male Sixes lacrosse players (24.82 ± 2.58 years, 180.17 ± 8.84 cm, 90.14 ± 7.63 kg) participated within the present study, playing in five competitive matches over three-days. Three countermovement jump (CMJ) trials were performed pre- and post-match. Results: Very large (d = 1.35 [0.51-2.17]) decreases in system weight (SW), a moderate increase in jump height (JH) (d = 0.67 [-0.02-1.31]) and a moderate decrease in average relative braking force (ARBf) (d = 0.68 [-0.03-1.27]) were observed from pre-post one match. A moderate (d = 0.76 [0.07-1.42]) decrease in SW, with a small increase in average relative propulsive force (ARPf) (d = 0.30 [-0.31-0.90]) were observed from pre-post three matches. Very large increases in JH (d = 1.69 [0.73-2.61]) and time to take off (d = 1.43 [-0.40-2.45]) with a large increase in countermovement displacement (d = 1.05 [0.29-1.78]) and a large decrease in ARBf (d = 0.84 [0.13-1.52]), with no meaningful changes were observed for SW (d = 0.03 [-0.56-0.62]), or ARPf (d = 0.04 [-0.56-0.63]) observed from pre-post international tournament. Conclusion: The results of this study have implications on recovery within Sixes lacrosse players during international tournaments. Moreover, the high levels of observed fatigue would likely require a period of restitution following international tournament.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nicholas Ripley, Jack Fahey, Matthew Collier, Paul Comfort https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Inter-Day Reliability of Countermovement Jump Metrics in Elite Academy Soccer Players
The purpose of this study was to determine the inter-day reliability of countermovement jump (CMJ) force plate metrics in elite male academy soccer players. Fourteen players performed 3 CMJ´s on 3 separate days over an 8-day period during a typical in-season competition and training period. Absolute (coefficient of variation (CV)) and relative reliability (interclass coefficient (ICC)) were calculated using two inter-day combinations; condition 1: Monday-Tuesday, condition 2: Monday-Monday and using two data treatment methods; mean of trials (“mean3”) and single trial with the highest Flight Time:Contraction Time (“BestFT:CT”). In the mean3, Monday-Tuesday condition, all CV´s except for peak landing force were < 10%, with most < 5%, while all ICC’s were > 0.75 (good), and most ICC’s > 0.9 (excellent). Several metrics had lower CV´s and higher ICC´s in condition 1 than condition 2 and in mean3 than BestFT:CT. Importantly, in the context of using downward “eccentric” phase metrics in monitoring, eccentric deceleration rate of force development, durations, power and displacement within this phase demonstrated good-excellent absolute reliability (CVs between 2.9% and 7.03%). Overall, CV´s were substantially lower than most previous studies, but similar to investigations involving elite team sport athletes who also perform the CMJ regularly. Our findings suggest that metric reliability is enhanced by this exposure and by a competitive environment, and that reliability data obtained in populations without these characteristics is not generalizable to the elite setting. Practitioners should endeavor to assess inter-day reliability within their team. In-season implementation represents an ecologically valid option.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ben Lonergan, Daniel D Cohen, Sean Williams, Rebecca Lawson, David J Howarth, David M Johnson https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0